MIXORA CONCEPT
Correlation
A statistical association in which values or events vary together.
Correlation is useful evidence but leaves open direct causation, reverse causation, shared causes, selection effects and coincidence.
What “Strong evidence” means
The core definition or effect is well established across authoritative standards, foundational research or a broad research literature. The label does not make every practical prediction certain.
VISUAL EXPLANATION · MARKER BOARDPeople carrying umbrellas and wet streets are correlated because rain causes both.
‘Correlation is not causation’ does not mean correlations are useless.
Which causal stories would all produce this same association?
A relationship in which changing one factor makes a difference to another outcome under relevant conditions.
→thoughtConfounderA factor related to both a suspected cause and an outcome that can create or distort their observed association.
→thought × bridgeEvidenceInformation that raises, lowers or otherwise constrains rational confidence in a claim.
→SOURCES & TRUST
References
Last reviewed
- 01Underdetermination of Scientific TheoryReference source
Kyle Stanford · Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Why the same observations can remain compatible with multiple causal explanations.
What the source labels mean
- Primary source
- Original work, experiment, standard or historical text.
- Academic source
- Scholarly research or review published for an academic audience.
- Reference source
- An expert standard, encyclopedia or institutional explanation that summarizes a field.
- General reference
- A practical specialist resource useful for application, but not treated as decisive research by itself.