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MIXORA CONCEPT

Confounder

A factor related to both a suspected cause and an outcome that can create or distort their observed association.

thoughtStrong evidence
IN PLAIN LANGUAGE

Confounders make a comparison unfair because groups differ in another relevant way. Design, randomization, matching or measurement can reduce but not always eliminate the problem.

What “Strong evidence” means

The core definition or effect is well established across authoritative standards, foundational research or a broad research literature. The label does not make every practical prediction certain.

Marker-board illustration created specifically to explain Confounder: A factor related to both a suspected cause and an outcome that can create or distort their observed association.VISUAL EXPLANATION · MARKER BOARD
A factor related to both a suspected cause and an outcome that can create or distort their observed association.
EXAMPLE

If experienced painters both buy premium paint and make better matches, experience can confound a comparison of paint price and accuracy.

COMMON CONFUSION

A confounder is not merely any additional variable; it must distort the relationship of interest.

ASK YOURSELF

What differs between the compared groups besides the factor being tested?

RELATED CONCEPTS
thought × bridgeCausation

A relationship in which changing one factor makes a difference to another outcome under relevant conditions.

→thought × bridgeCorrelation

A statistical association in which values or events vary together.

→thought × bridgeEvidence

Information that raises, lowers or otherwise constrains rational confidence in a claim.

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SOURCES & TRUST

References

Last reviewed

  1. 01
    Underdetermination of Scientific Theory

    Kyle Stanford · Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

    Why the same observations can remain compatible with multiple causal explanations.
    Reference source
What the source labels mean
Primary source
Original work, experiment, standard or historical text.
Academic source
Scholarly research or review published for an academic audience.
Reference source
An expert standard, encyclopedia or institutional explanation that summarizes a field.
General reference
A practical specialist resource useful for application, but not treated as decisive research by itself.